See-through brain?

The brain is, understandably, a popular topic for research. Traditionally researchers wishing to study the brain have had to use invasive and time-consuming methods of cutting it up. However, recently a team lead by Dr Karl Deisseroth at Stanford University has developed a method to make brains transparent, allowing them to be studied without having to be sliced up. The process can also be used with other organs, "revolutionising the three-dimensional study of important organs within the body".

The brain is surrounded by lipids that help form the membranes around the cells and bind the tissues together. This membrane blocks the view into the brain. The revolutionary new process referred to as CLARITY replaces the lipids with a clear gel, which preserves the tissues while revealing the internal structure of the brain. The gel is injected into the organ and is absorbed into the tissue. The lipids are then removed, while the rest of the brain remains intact, leaving the neurons, axons, dendrites, proteins and synapses in place and able to be viewed.

Previously these structures could only be seen following the brain being sliced up, and only across tiny slivers of tissue. Researchers then needed to reconstruct three-dimensional data from images of these thin slices to form a three dimensional view of the brain.

Using CLARITY scientists can then use fluorescent proteins and neuro-imaging to see neuronal connections, subcellular structures, proteins, nucleic acids and how cells interact and relate to each other. This opens up the possibility of viewing large networks of neurons with unprecedented ease and accuracy.

The procedure has already been used to investigate the nerves in the post-mortem brain of an autistic boy. They noticed unusual patterns in the neurons, which is likely to help advance the understanding of autism.

We at ANTS look forward to hearing more about how this procedure can be used for advancing our understanding of various neurological and neuropsychological conditions.

Living by values

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes, which guide ethical action. Commonly held values are honesty, equality, justice and commitment. Value identification, value creation and values-based living are the basis for many religions, philosophies and psychological therapies. A good (though maybe somewhat morbid!) way to identify your personal values is to think about what you would like people to say at your funeral. Or alternatively what you'd like your family to say about you on your 80th birthday, or your partner to say on your golden wedding anniversary.

Values play an important role in good psychological health. In his blog Anger in the Age of Entitlement, Steven Stosny, Ph.D and psychotherapist states that "If you devalue more than you value, your life will be bad, no matter how many good things happen to you. If you value more than you value, your life will be good, regardless of how many bad things happen to you".
That is a very interesting concept, and it explains why:

• Often the things we think will make us happy don't
• Why some people who appear outwardly to have everything are not happy, and
• Why some people who appear to have very little do seem to be happy.

Nelson Mandela is one good example of this. He experienced the death of his father as a child, was expelled from one university and dropped out of another for being a poor student, was imprisoned, experienced the death of two of his children, was not allowed to attend the funeral of his mother and one of his children, and was twice divorced. Despite these setbacks he continued to devote himself to his values of democracy and equality, achieved his goal of democracy in South Africa, and created an important legacy. It is likely that he was able to keep pursuing his goals despite his bad experiences because he was living by his values.

On the other hand, daily we hear about various celebrities, who despite their wealth, status and popularity have drug addictions, convictions for various offences and even on occasion attempt or complete suicide. While we do not know what happens in their personal lives, it is likely that they pursued fame and money thinking that it would make them happy, while ignoring or violating their deepest values. Certainly it is highly unlikely that anyone's deepest values include destroying their bodies and harming other people.

Anything involving the brain that is done repeatedly becomes habituated. Repeatedly pursuing a certain mindset creates neural pathways in the brain that become strengthened until that way of thinking is essentially automatic. If we continue to think about the ways we have been wronged for example, complain about other people and pursue revenge, then resentment will become our automatic way of thinking. If we actively choose to see setbacks as opportunities for growth and pursue compassionate understanding, then we are creating values based thinking, which is likely to lead to more happiness.

The upshot is that values-based living will lead to more happiness and better emotional health. In a practical sense, when something happens in our lives that makes us feel devalued, we are likely to recover more quickly and to have a better overall outcome if we strive to value rather than devalue. For instance, when going through a break up it is better to find ways to feel loved and to love others rather than to blame and demonise the other person.

Certainly easier said than done!

The neuropsychology of smell

The power of the nose

Have you ever smelt something that immediately took you back to your childhood, to a happy or difficult time in your life or to a certain place? Could you remember exactly how you felt or what you were thinking or doing when you last smelt it, even if it was a long time ago?

It's a common experience to associate an aroma with a memory, which can often arouse quite vivid feelings. The reason that our sense of smell is so powerful is that unlike other senses it does not have to pass through a brain structure known as the thalamus but is directly processed by the olfactory system in the brain. It is also part of the limbic system, which also plays a role in processing emotions and memories.

Compared to many animals, the human olfactory system takes up a relatively small part of the brain and our sense of smell is quite weak. However, the importance of human olfaction is demonstrated by studies that show we can us it among other things, to identify relatives, choose partners and determine age

A new study by Assistant Professor Johan Lundström, an experimental neuropsychologist at the Monell Chemical Sciences Centre in the United States, demonstrates how well we can use our sense of smell to determine age. And debunks the myth that old people smell bad!

Assistant Prof Lundström and colleagues had people from three age groups (20-30 years, 45-55 years and 75-95 years) sleep with pads located under their arms for 5 nights. The pads were then placed in jars and other participants were asked to group the jars according to age. Participants were able to easily group the armpit pads by age group and even by gender.

Surprisingly, despite the common conception that older people have an unpleasant odour, younger people rated the arm pads of the oldest age group as being fairly neutral and not unpleasant.

The group rated as most unpleasant was men aged 45-55 years.

The work of neuropsychologists is varied and valuable. To learn more about what we do and about our services, visit our website

Parenthood changes your brain!

Parents may not be surprised by the finding that being a parent actually changes your brain (some may be surprised that the changes are good ones!). Research shows that parents have different patterns of brain activity in some areas than non-parents.

One study found that hormonal changes that occur in pregnancy increase the number of dendrites in the brain. Dendrites are the projections from a neuron (or brain cell) that act to facilitate communication between neurons. So, the more dendrites, the more chance of neural connections. The neural connections that are created during pregnancy have been shown in rat studies to enhance memory and learning. This is likely to be because learning and memory are important in raising young.

Positive thinking changes your brain!

Psychology has for some time now borrowed from the philosophies and practices of Buddhism (e.g., meditation and mindfulness), to help treat conditions like depression and anxiety and to help people increase their general psychological well-being.

New breakthroughs in neuropsychology and neuroscience have allowed us to better understand how these practices work to actually rewire the brain to allow for more calmness and greater happiness.

Teenagers, sleep and brain changes

Adolescents are renowned for their ability to sleep and for their erratic behaviour.

A recent study examining adolescent brain activity during sleep reveals what is happening in the brains of adolescents (that may help explain their behaviour!).

The study, led by Dr Ian Campbell and Prof Irwin Feinberg at the University of California, involved 67 adolescents. The researchers took electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings of their brainwaves while sleeping. They found that there was a 60% drop in the activity of delta waves in the brain as the children moved through puberty, particularly between the ages of 12 and 16 years. Delta waves occur during non-rapid eye movement sleep, the phase of sleep where the brain recuperates from its activity during the day.

Changes in brainwaves indicate that pruning of brain cells occurs at this time. As discussed in our earlier blog, Neuroplasticity in Children, pruning involves brain cells and the connections between them being removed, leading to changes in brain efficiency.

Another researcher, Prof Mick Hunter of the University of Newcastle, stated that "People don't realise what massive changes occur in adolescence in a very short period of time. There are so many changes - physiologically, mentally and socially". These changes appear to be interdependent.

These findings may have implications for the study of mental illness such as schizophrenia. It may be that errors that occur during the rapid process of brain reorganisation at the end of adolescence give rise to mental illness.

Mental illness can be associated with cognitive difficulties. To learn more about the relationship between mental illness and cognition, contact us.

Sleep and cognition: or, your brain needs sleep!

Most people are likely to be familiar with the expression "sleep on it" - meaning that sleep can be beneficial to problem solving and decision making.

Emerging evidence shows that sleep is even more important to brain health and cognition, particularly memory, than we realise.

It has been known for some time that sleep apnoea, a sleep disorder, is a risk factor for certain types of dementia.

A new Australian study has found that another sleep disorder is associated with memory problems. People with rapid eye movement sleep disorder (RBD) have twice the risk of developing memory problems and Parkinson's disease. RBD is a sleep disorder that involves abnormal behaviour during the sleep phase where rapid eye movement occurs. People with RBD tend to act out their dreams.

The study found that a third of the people with RBD developed mild cognitive impairment or Parkinson's disease within four years of being in the study. This is a rate that is more than twice that of people without RBD. Behavioural neurologist Dr Brendon Boot was the lead author of the paper, which has been published in the Annals of Neurology.

He says being able to identify those patients who are a greater risk of mild cognitive impairment or Parkinson's disease will mean earlier treatment for those affected.

Early invention is vital because as these disorders advance they destroy brain cells.

What do you mean my brain is plastic?

It's strange but true, our brains are like plastic!

What this means is that our brains can be 'moulded'. As we learn, think, grow and gain new experiences our brains change and reorganise themselves. The fancy scientific term for this is "neuroplasticity".

While the neuroplasticity of children's brains has been well established, until fairly recently it was thought that adult's brains were fixed or hard-wired and unable to be moulded. Hence cliches like "you can't teach an old dog new tricks".

Well, luckily for anyone over the age of 18, it it turns out that you can!

The next series of blogs focuses on research and case studies that demonstrate that our brains have the ability to adapt to our environment and that we can keep on learning and improving throughout out lives. Another big thanks to ANTS-er Karen who is on top of all the fascinating neuro news!

Brain adapts when a limb is damaged

A fascinating study undertaken by Prof Lutz Jancke and colleagues at the University of Zurich in Switzerland has shown that when a limb is damaged and immobilised the thickness in the cerebral cortex (brain matter) associated with that part of the body reduces.

In a study that is the first of its kind, 10 right-handed people who had broken their dominant (right) arms had MRI brain scans within 48 hours of their accidents before their arms where placed in plaster/slings and again 16 days later while immobilised. The researchers also measured signals sent from brain to the right arm and the dexterity of their non-dominant left hand.

They found that the thickness of the motor cortex (brain cells that control movement) on the left side of the brain (which controls the right arm) decreased significantly in response to the arm's lack of use, and the signals from that part of the brain to the hand reduced. Whereas the dexterity of the left hand increased, as did the thickness of the part of the brain controlling movement in the left hand - in this case particularly the pre-motor cortex, which is involved in planning complex movements.

Dr Penelope McNulty of Neuroscience Research Australia said about the study:

"It just shows how dynamic the brain remodelling really can be. As far as I'm aware, this is one of the first studies to show that inactivity produces plasticity in the human brain."

This study has implications for the treatment of many conditions where there is loss of use of a part of the body, such as strokes.

It also reinforces that when it comes to the brain you need to use it or lose it!

We'd love to hear from you! Maybe you have a story about how your brain has changed, or maybe you'd like to know more about how to make the most of your exceptional brain. You can post a comment below or contact us here.

Our exceptional brain (continued)

As discussed in our earlier blog, Neuro-what-ology, neuropsychology has evolved along with our burgeoning understanding of the human brain. Two recent studies further illuminate the complexity and awesomeness of this vital organ, and the relationship between brain and behaviour.

Studies such as these are vital to the practice of neuropsychology as they help inform assessment practices and treatment programs and assist with interpretation of results.

Also, they make a great dinner party conversation topic!

Thanks to Karen Wallace, Clinical Neuropsychologist, and fellow ANTSer for sniffing out these great articles.

Synaesthesia and the visual cortex

The first study concerns synaesthesia – a condition where people experience a sense separate to the one being stimulated, such as seeing colours while reading words. Dr Devin Terhune and colleagues from the University of Oxford in the UK found that there is a "fundamental" difference between the brains of people with and without synaesthesia.

People with synaesthesia appear to have an overactive visual cortex, the part of the brain that is responsible for processing visual information, located in the Occipital lobe at the back of the brain.

Over time, this overactivity appears to create changes in the regions of the brain responsible for processing information about letters, colours and numbers during development.

The researchers stimulated the visual cortex of individuals with and without synaesthesia by producing a magnetic field from a coil applied to the scalp. In both cases stimulation resulted in ‘phosphenes’, or flashes of light or other visual images, but those individuals without the condition required three times greater stimulation in order to experience phosphenes.

The researchers hoped that the findings could be used to reduce or eliminate synaesthesia, or even to train those without it to learn digit or word-colour associations, which could be useful when studying mathematics, English or music.

The study was published on November 18, 2011 in Current Biology.

If you’d like to read about the second study, stay tuned...and visit our blog again next week.

If you’d like more information about Advanced Neuropsychological Treatment Services, please visit our website or contact us via our online enquiry form.

World focuses attention on tragic outcomes of road traffic accidents

The ‘Pinky Ad’ and Road Safety

Who could forget those ads that ran on Australian television a few years ago about young male drivers – the ones with the pinky finger that targeted risky driving in young males by implying that speeding is linked to an inferiority complex to do with, let’s just say, an aspect of the male anatomy.
While the approach was light-hearted (if a bit sexist!), the subject matter is not. Road accidents are the leading killer of people aged between 15 to 29 years. Globally 1.3 million people die each year on the roads and between 20 and 50 million people sustain non-fatal injuries. It is projected that based on current rates, if no action is taken, road accidents will result in 1.9 million deaths by 2020.
Now the world is collectively sitting up and taking notice.

Global Decade of Action for Road Safety

May 11 marked the beginning of the global Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020. The aim of the ‘Decade’ is to prevent death and injury from road traffic events. At least 20 countries, including Australia, are involved in the Decade, their governments having committed to improving safety management and enhancing health and related services.

Road Accidents and Traumatic Brain Injury

One of the most tragic outcomes of road accidents is Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). TBI is an acquired brain injury caused by physical damage to the brain, either as a result of an external force striking the head or the brain impacting with the skull. The force causes the brain to move within the skull, causing internal damage.
There are different levels of severity raging from mild to extremely severe which are determined by factors including recall of events before and after the incident and level of coma. The more severe the TBI, the poorer the prognosis.
Cognitive and psychological outcomes can include memory difficulties, difficulties with higher level thinking skills (e.g. planning/organisation), slowed speed of information processing, mood and personality change, depression and anxiety.
A 2008 report by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare and the Research Centre for Injury Studies found that there were more than 22,700 hospitalisations involving TBI in Australia in 2004-05. After falls, transportation use was the second highest external cause of TBI, at 31% of all cases, which represented over 7,000 people.
Nearly 70% of the cases were males, who acquired TBI at more than twice the rate of females.

TBI and Clinical Neuropsychology

While the main aim of the Decade is to prevent TBI, another important aim is to improve management of and services for those who experience a TBI. Clinical neuropsychology is critical in the assessment and rehabilitation of TBI. A neuropsychological assessment can provide detailed information on the impact of the TBI on various aspects of cognition (thinking skills) and expert advice regarding the trajectory of brain recovery and remediation/rehabilitation strategies to allow for the best possible outcome.
If you or someone you know has had a TBI and would like more information on our assessment and rehabilitation services, please contact us.
And please slow down on our roads over this holiday period.

Neuro-what-ology?

For the clinical neuropsychologist (or those in training) a dinner party can be an interesting experience. When the talk inevitably turns to “what do you do” neuropsychologists need to be prepared for the fact that most people a. have never heard of neuropsychology; b. don’t understand what neuropsychologists do; and c. (the best bit) usually want to know more.

So what is clinical neuropsychology?

Clinical neuropsychology is a specialisation within the field of psychology which involves the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders associated with conditions affecting the brain.

Clinical neuropsychologists conduct evidence-based neuropsychological assessments to develop a profile of an individual’s cognitive strengths and weakness. This neuropsychological profile helps to identify the root causes(s) of presenting problems and informs treatment programs.

There are a number of reasons why clinical neuropsychology is not a widely known or understood specialisation. One important reason relates to the complexity of the brain. Our current understanding of how the brain works has been informed by centuries of research. Clinical neuropsychology has evolved along with important developments in our understanding of brain structure and function and this will no doubt continue as we deepen our understanding of this complex organ.

A brief history of our evolving understanding of the brain

Written records about the brain and nervous system have been found as early as 1700 B.C. However, it was not until the 17th century A.D. that serious investigations about the brain and its functions were undertaken, and not until the 20th century that scientists began to fully appreciate the relationship between structure and function. Some key developments were:

1600’s

• Rene Descartes introduced the concept of the relationship between the mind and the body, coining his famous phrase “I think, therefore I am”.
• Thomas Willis published his ‘Anatomy of the Brain’. One of his most important contributions was a discussion of cerebral circulation.

1800’s

• Franz Josef Gall founded the science of Phrenology, which involved studying the topography of a skull as an indicator of brain anatomy. He introduced the concept of the brain being composed of various sections, each of which he proposed was responsible for a psychological trait.
• While his ideas were later largely discredited, the idea of linking brain structure to function was an important development, leading to the theory of localisation.
  
• Neurologists Paul Broca (and later Carl Wernicke) used this theory, together with investigations of brain damaged people, to determine that there were two distinct yet related areas of the brain responsible for language production and language comprehension.

1900’s

• Hans Berger developed the first electroencephalograph (EEG), a device for recording the electrical activity in the brain.
• Procedures such as Lobotomies and Electro-shock Therapy, while controversial, helped advance understanding of the relationship between brain structure and function and the outcomes of damage to certain brain regions.
• In 1953 patient HM, who went on to become one of the most important patients in the history of brain research, underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection to treat medication-resistant epilepsy. As a result, HM became densely amnesic and was largely unable to form new memories.
• HM participated in hundreds of research studies and helped advance our understanding of memory, learning
• and their relationship with brain structure and other cognitive functions.
• A key finding was the importance of the role of a brain structure called the hippocampus in forming new memories.
• Experiments on epilepsy patients who had the two halves (hemispheres) of their brain surgically separated advanced our understanding of lateralisation.
• In the 1970’s and 1980’s scanning and imaging devices such as CT and MRI allowed for detailed mapping of the brain’s structure.

2000’s

• Advances in brain imaging technology have improved understanding of brain structure and techniques such as functional MRI have enhanced understanding of the relationship between structure and function.
• The aging population and increasing prevalence of dementia has resulted in an explosion of research in the field. Neuropsychology is critical for the diagnosis and management of dementia.

How we use our knowledge to help you

Understanding how the brain functions is just one of the many skills that clinical neuropsychologists need to master. Our knowledge of brain anatomy informs our clinical assessments, allowing us to provide informed diagnoses and to draw conclusions about functional implications and rehabilitation techniques for a wide range of conditions affecting the brain, from learning disorders to dementia.

Contact us today to find out more about how our neuropsychological services can help you.

And please feel free to use this information to impress your friends at your next dinner party!

References

http://www.mybrain.co.uk/public/learn_history2.php
http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2002/neuro.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539424/
Images courtesy of google images